This article lists the changes to virus taxonomy approved and ratified by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) in April 2016. Changes to virus taxonomy (the Universal Scheme of Virus Classification of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses [ICTV]) now take place annually and are the result of a multi-stage process. In accordance with the ICTV Statutes http://www.ictvonline.org/statutes.asp), proposals submitted to the ICTV Executive Committee (EC) undergo a review process that involves input from the ICTV Study Groups (SGs) and Subcommittees (SCs), other interested virologists, and the EC. After final approval by the EC, proposals are then presented for ratification to the full ICTV membership by publication on an ICTV web site (http://www.ictvonline.org/) followed by an electronic vote. The latest set of proposals approved by the EC was made available on the ICTV website by January 2016 (https://talk.ictvonline.org/files/proposals/). A list of these proposals was then emailed on 28 March 2016 to the 148 members of ICTV, namely the EC Members, Life Members, ICTV Subcommittee Members (including the SG chairs) and ICTV National Representatives. Members were then requested to vote on whether to ratify the taxonomic proposals (voting closed on 29 April 2016).

Mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase/extracellular regulated kinase (MEK1/2/ERK1/2) cascade is involved in the replication of several members of the Flaviviridae family including hepatitis C virus and dengue virus. The effects of the cascade on the replication of classical swine fever virus (CSFV), a fatal pestivirus of pigs, remain unknown. In this study, MEK2 was identified as a novel binding partner of the E2 protein of CSFV using yeast two-hybrid screening. The E2-MEK2 interaction was confirmed by glutathione S-transferase pulldown, coimmunoprecipitation, and laser confocal microscopy assays. The C-termini of E2 [amino acids (aa) 890–1053] and MEK2 (aa 266–400) were mapped to be crucial for the interaction. Overexpression of MEK2 significantly promoted the replication of CSFV, whereas knockdown of MEK2 by lentivirus-mediated small hairpin RNAs dramatically inhibited CSFV replication. In addition, CSFV infection induced a biphasic activation of ERK1/2, the downstream signaling molecules of MEK2. Furthermore, the replication of CSFV was markedly inhibited in PK-15 cells treated with U0126, a specific inhibitor for MEK1/2/ERK1/2, whereas MEK2 did not affect CSFV replication after blocking the interferon-induced Janus kinase-signal transducer and activator of transcription (JAK-STAT) signaling pathway by ruxolitinib, a JAK-STAT-specific inhibitor. Taken together, our results indicate that MEK2 positively regulates the replication of CSFV through inhibiting the JAK-STAT signaling pathway.IMPORTANCE Mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 2 (MEK2) is a kinase that operates immediately upstream of extracellular regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) and links to Raf and ERK via phosphorylation. Currently, little is known about the role of MEK2 in the replication of classical swine fever virus (CSFV), a devastating porcine pestivirus. Here, we investigate the roles of MEK2 and the MEK2/ERK1/2 cascade in the growth of CSFV for the first time. We show that MEK2 positively regulates CSFV replication. Notably, we demonstrate that MEK2 promotes CSFV replication through inhibiting the interferon-induced JAK-STAT signaling pathway, a key antiviral pathway involved in the innate immunity. Our work reveals a novel role of MEK2 in CSFV infection and sheds light on the molecular basis by which pestiviruses interplay with the host cell.

Newcastle disease virus (NDV), a prototype avian paramyxovirus type 1 (APMV-1), causes economically devastating disease in avian species around the world. ND is enzootic in Pakistan and recurrent outbreaks are frequent in multiple avian species even after continuous and extensive use of vaccines. A number of APMV-1 and pigeon paramyxovirus serotype 1 (PPMV-1) strains have been isolated and genetically characterized in recent years. However, the impact of recently characterized wild bird origin APMVs in domestic poultry, and the potency of routinely used vaccines against these novel and genetically diverse viruses remain unknown. Here, we applied next generation sequencing for unbiased complete genome characterization of APMV-1 and PPMV-1 strains isolated from clinically diseased peacocks (Pavo cristatus) and pigeons (Columba livia), respectively. Global phylodynamics and evolutionary analysis demonstrates Pigeon/MZS-UVAS-Pak/2014 is clustered into lineage 4 (or genotype VI) and Peacock/MZS-UVAS-Pak/2014 into lineage 5 (or genotype VII). The genomes of both isolates encoded for polybasic residues (112RRQKR?F117) at the fusion protein cleavage motif along with a number of important substitutions in the surface glycoproteins compared to the vaccine strains. Clinicopathological and immunological investigations in domesticated chickens indicate that these isolates can potentially transmit between tested avian species, can cause systemic infections, and can induce antibodies that are unable to prevent virus shedding. Collectively, the data from these genomic and biological assessments highlight the potential of wild birds in transmitting APMVs to domesticated chickens. The study also demonstrates that the current vaccine regimens are incapable of providing complete protection against wild bird origin APMVs and PPMVs.

Bluetongue virus is the type species of the genus Orbivirus, family Reoviridae. Bluetongue viruses (BTV) are transmitted between their vertebrate hosts primarily by biting midges (Culicoides spp.) in which they also replicate. Consequently BTV distribution is dependent on the activity, geographic distribution, and seasonal abundance of Culicoides spp. The virus can also be transmitted vertically in vertebrate hosts, and some strains/serotypes can be transmitted horizontally in the absence of insect vectors. The BTV genome is composed of ten linear segments of double-stranded (ds) RNA, numbered in order of decreasing size (Seg-1 to Seg-10). Genome segment 2 (Seg-2) encodes outer-capsid protein VP2, the most variable BTV protein and the primary target for neutralising antibodies. Consequently VP2 (and Seg-2) determine the identity of the twenty seven serotypes and two additional putative BTV serotypes that have been recognised so far. Current BTV vaccines are serotype specific and typing of outbreak strains is required in order to deploy appropriate vaccines. We report development and evaluation of multiple ‘TaqMan’ fluorescence-probe based quantitative real-time type-specific RT-PCR assays targeting Seg-2 of the 27+1 BTV types. The assays were evaluated using orbivirus isolates from the ‘Orbivirus Reference Collection’ (ORC) held at The Pirbright Institute. The assays are BTV-type specific and can be used for rapid, sensitive and reliable detection / identification (typing) of BTV RNA from samples of infected blood, tissues, homogenised Culicoides, or tissue culture supernatants. None of the assays amplified cDNAs from closely related but heterologous orbiviruses, or from uninfected host animals or cell cultures.

Effective training of horses relies on the trainer's awareness of learning theory and equine ethology, and should be undertaken with skill and time. Some trainers, such as Monty Roberts, share their methods through the medium of public demonstrations. This paper describes the opportunistic analysis of beat-to-beat (RR) intervals and heart rate variability (HRV) of ten horses being used in Monty Roberts' public demonstrations within the United Kingdom. RR and HRV was measured in the stable before training and during training. The HRV variables standard deviation of the RR interval (SDRR), root mean square of successive RR differences (RMSSD), geometric means standard deviation 1 (SD1) and 2 (SD2), along with the low and high frequency ratio (LF/HF ratio) were calculated. The minimum, average and maximum RR intervals were significantly lower in training (indicative of an increase in heart rate as measured in beats-per-minute) than in the stable ( p = 0.0006; p = 0.01; p = 0.03). SDRR, RMSSD, SD1, SD2 and the LF/HF ratio were all significantly lower in training than in the stable ( p = 0.001; p = 0.049; p = 0.049; p = 0.001; p = 0.01). When comparing the HR and HRV of horses during Join-up ((R)) to overall training, there were no significant differences in any variable with the exception of maximum RR which was significantly lower ( p = 0.007) during Join-up ((R)) , indicative of short increases in physical exertion (canter) associated with this training exercise. In conclusion, training of horses during public demonstrations is a low-moderate physiological, rather than psychological stressor for horses. The physiological stress responses observed within this study were comparable or less to those previously reported in the literature for horses being trained outside of public audience events. Furthermore, there is no evidence that the use of Join-up ((R)) alters HR and HRV in a way to suggest that this training method negatively affects the psychological welfare of horses.